]> Why com_err? In building application software packages, a programmer often has to deal with a number of libraries, each of which can use a different error-reporting mechanism. Sometimes one of two values is returned, indicating simply SUCCESS or FAILURE, with no description of errors encountered. Sometimes it is an index into a table of text strings, where the name of the table used is dependent on the library being used when the error is generated; since each table starts numbering at 0 or 1, additional information as to the source of the error code is needed to determine which table to look at. Sometimes no text messages are supplied at all, and the programmer must supply them at any point at which he may wish to report error conditions. Often, a global variable is assigned some value describing the error, but the programmer has to know in each case whether to look at errno, h_errno, the return value from hes_err(), or whatever other variables or routines are specified. And what happens if something in the procedure of examining or reporting the error changes the same variable? The package we have developed is an attempt to present a common error-handling mechanism to manipulate the most common form of error code in a fashion that does not have the problems listed above. A list of up to 256 text messages is supplied to a translator we have written, along with the three- to four-character “name” of the error table. The library using this error table need only call a routine generated from this error-table source to make the table “known” to the com_err library, and any error code the library generates can be converted to the corresponding error message. There is also a default format for error codes accidentally returned before making the table known, which is of the form ‘unknown code foo 32’, where ‘foo’ would be the name of the table. Error codes Error codes themselves are 32 bit (signed) integers, of which the high order 24 bits are an identifier of which error table the error code is from, and the low order 8 bits are a sequential error number within the table. An error code may thus be easily decomposed into its component parts. Only the lowest 32 bits of an error code are considered significant on systems which support wider values. Error table 0 is defined to match the UNIX system call error table (sys_errlist); this allows errno values to be used directly in the library (assuming that errno is of a type with the same width as long). Other error table numbers are formed by compacting together the first four characters of the error table name. The mapping between characters in the name and numeric values in the error code are defined in a system-independent fashion, so that two systems that can pass integral values between them can reliably pass error codes without loss of meaning; this should work even if the character sets used are not the same. (However, if this is to be done, error table 0 should be avoided, since the local system call error tables may differ.) Any variable which is to contain an error code should be declared long. The draft proposed American National Standard for C (as of May, 1988) requires that long variables be at least 32 bits; any system which does not support 32-bit long values cannot make use of this package (nor much other software that assumes an ANSI-C environment base) without significant effort. Error table source file The error table source file begins with the declaration of the table name, as error_table tablename Individual error codes are specified with error_code ERROR_NAME, "text message" where ‘ec’ can also be used as a short form of ‘error_code’. To indicate the end of the table, use ‘end’. Thus, a (short) sample error table might be: error_table dsc error_code DSC_DUP_MTG_NAME, "Meeting already exists" ec DSC_BAD_PATH, "A bad meeting pathname was given" ec DSC_BAD_MODES, "Invalid mode for this access control list" end The error-table compiler The error table compiler is named compile_et. It takes one argument, the pathname of a file (ending in ‘.et’, e.g., ‘dsc_err.et’) containing an error table source file. It parses the error table, and generates two output files – a C header file (‘discuss_err.h’) which contains definitions of the numerical values of the error codes defined in the error table, and a C source file which should be compiled and linked with the executable. The header file must be included in the source of a module which wishes to reference the error codes defined; the object module generated from the C code may be linked in to a program which wishes to use the printed forms of the error codes. This translator accepts a -language lang argument, which determines for which language (or language variant) the output should be written. At the moment, lang is currently limited to ANSI-C and K&R-C, and some abbreviated forms of each. Eventually, this will be extended to include some support for C++. The default is currently K&R-C, though the generated sources will have ANSI-C code conditionalized on the symbol __STDC__. Run-time support routines Any source file which uses the routines supplied with or produced by the com_err package should include the header file <com_err.h>. It contains declarations and definitions which may be needed on some systems. (Some functions cannot be referenced properly without the return type declarations in this file. Some functions may work properly on most architectures even without the header file, but relying on this is not recommended.) The run-time support routines and variables provided via this package include the following: void initialize_xxxx_error_table (void); One of these routines is built by the error compiler for each error table. It makes the xxxx error table “known” to the error reporting system. By convention, this routine should be called in the initialization routine of the xxxx library. If the library has no initialization routine, some combination of routines which form the core of the library should ensure that this routine is called. It is not advised to leave it the caller to make this call. There is no harm in calling this routine more than once. #define ERROR_TABLE_BASE_xxxx nnnnnL This symbol contains the value of the first error code entry in the specified table. This rarely needs be used by the programmer. const char *error_message (long code); This routine returns the character string error message associated with code; if this is associated with an unknown error table, or if the code is associated with a known error table but the code is not in the table, a string of the form ‘Unknown code xxxx nn’ is returned, where xxxx is the error table name produced by reversing the compaction performed on the error table number implied by that error code, and nn is the offset from that base value. Although this routine is available for use when needed, its use should be left to circumstances which render com_err (below) unusable. void com_err (const char *whoami, /* module reporting error */ long code, /* error code */ const char *format, /* format for additional detail */ ...); /* (extra parameters) */ This routine provides an alternate way to print error messages to standard error; it allows the error message to be passed in as a parameter, rather than in an external variable. Provide grammatical context for “message.” If format is (char *)NULL, the formatted message will not be printed. format may not be omitted. #include <stdarg.h> void com_err_va (const char *whoami, long code, const char *format, va_list args); This routine provides an interface, equivalent to com_err above, which may be used by higher-level variadic functions (functions which accept variable numbers of arguments). #include <stdarg.h> void (*set_com_err_hook (void (*proc) ())) (); void (*proc) (const char *whoami, long code, va_list args); void reset_com_err_hook (); These two routines allow a routine to be dynamically substituted for ‘com_err’. After ‘set_com_err_hook’ has been called, calls to ‘com_err’ will turn into calls to the new hook routine. ‘reset_com_err_hook’ turns off this hook. This may intended to be used in daemons (to use a routine which calls syslog(3)), or in a window system application (which could pop up a dialogue box). If a program is to be used in an environment in which simply printing messages to the stderr stream would be inappropriate (such as in a daemon program which runs without a terminal attached), set_com_err_hook may be used to redirect output from com_err. The following is an example of an error handler which uses syslog(3) as supplied in BSD 4.3: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdarg.h> #include <syslog.h> /* extern openlog (const char * name, int logopt, int facility); */ /* extern syslog (int priority, char * message, ...); */ void hook (const char * whoami, long code, const char * format, va_list args) { char buffer[BUFSIZ]; static int initialized = 0; if (!initialized) { openlog (whoami, LOG_NOWAIT|LOG_CONS|LOG_PID|LOG_NDELAY, LOG_DAEMON); initialized = 1; } vsprintf (buffer, format, args); syslog (LOG_ERR, "%s %s", error_message (code), buffer); } After making the call set_com_err_hook (hook);, any calls to com_err will result in messages being sent to the syslogd daemon for logging. The name of the program, ‘whoami’, is supplied to the ‘openlog()’ call, and the message is formatted into a buffer and passed to syslog. Note that since the extra arguments to com_err are passed by reference via the va_list value args, the hook routine may place any form of interpretation on them, including ignoring them. For consistency, printf-style interpretation is suggested, via vsprintf (or _doprnt on BSD systems without full support for the ANSI C library). Coding Conventions The following conventions are just some general stylistic conventions to follow when writing robust libraries and programs. Conventions similar to this are generally followed inside the UNIX kernel and most routines in the Multics operating system. In general, a routine either succeeds (returning a zero error code, and doing some side effects in the process), or it fails, doing minimal side effects; in any event, any invariant which the library assumes must be maintained. In general, it is not in the domain of non user-interface library routines to write error messages to the user's terminal, or halt the process. Such forms of “error handling” should be reserved for failures of internal invariants and consistancy checks only, as it provides the user of the library no way to clean up for himself in the event of total failure. Library routines which can fail should be set up to return an error code. This should usually be done as the return value of the function; if this is not acceptable, the routine should return a “null” value, and put the error code into a parameter passed by reference. Routines which use the first style of interface can be used from user-interface levels of a program as follows: { if ((code = initialize_world(getuid(), random())) != 0) { com_err("demo", code, "when trying to initialize world"); exit(1); } if ((database = open_database("my_secrets", &code))==NULL) { com_err("demo", code, "while opening my_secrets"); exit(1); } } A caller which fails to check the return status is in error. It is possible to look for code which ignores error returns by using lint; look for error messages of the form “foobar returns value which is sometimes ignored” or “foobar returns value which is always ignored.” Since libraries may be built out of other libraries, it is often necessary for the success of one routine to depend on another. When a lower level routine returns an error code, the middle level routine has a few possible options. It can simply return the error code to its caller after doing some form of cleanup, it can substitute one of its own, or it can take corrective action of its own and continue normally. For instance, a library routine which makes a “connect” system call to make a network connection may reflect the system error code ECONNREFUSED (Connection refused) to its caller, or it may return a “server not available, try again later,” or it may try a different server. Cleanup which is typically necessary may include, but not be limited to, freeing allocated memory which will not be needed any more, unlocking concurrancy locks, dropping reference counts, closing file descriptors, or otherwise undoing anything which the procedure did up to this point. When there are a lot of things which can go wrong, it is generally good to write one block of error-handling code which is branched to, using a goto, in the event of failure. A common source of errors in UNIX programs is failing to close file descriptors on error returns; this leaves a number of “zombied” file descriptors open, which eventually causes the process to run out of file descriptors and fall over. { FILE *f1=NULL, *f2=NULL, *f3=NULL; int status = 0; if ( (f1 = fopen(FILE1, "r")) == NULL) { status = errno; goto error; } /* * Crunch for a while */ if ( (f2 = fopen(FILE2, "w")) == NULL) { status = errno; goto error; } if ( (f3 = fopen(FILE3, "a+")) == NULL) { status = errno; goto error; } /* * Do more processing. */ fclose(f1); fclose(f2); fclose(f3); return 0; error: if (f1) fclose(f1); if (f2) fclose(f2); if (f3) fclose(f3); return status; } Building and Installation The distribution of this package will probably be done as a compressed “tar”-format file available via anonymous FTP from SIPB.MIT.EDU. Retrieve ‘pub/com_err.tar.Z’ and extract the contents. A subdirectory profiled should be created to hold objects compiled for profiling. Running “make all” should then be sufficient to build the library and error-table compiler. The files ‘libcom_err.a’, ‘libcom_err_p.a’, ‘com_err.h’, and ‘compile_et’ should be installed for use; ‘com_err.3’ and ‘compile_et.1’ can also be installed as manual pages. Potential problems: Use of strcasecmp, a routine provided in BSD forcase-insensitive string comparisons. If an equivalent routine isavailable, you can modify CFLAGS in the makefile to definestrcasecmp to the name of that routine. Compilers that defined __STDC__ without providing the headerfile <stdarg.h>. One such example is Metaware's High “C”compiler, as provided at Project Athena on the IBM RT/PC workstation; if__HIGHC__ is defined, it is assumed that <stdarg.h> is notavailable, and therefore <varargs.h> must be used. If the symbolVARARGS is defined (e.g., in the makefile), <varargs.h> willbe used. If your linker rejects symbols that are simultaneously defined in twolibrary files, edit ‘Makefile’ to remove ‘perror.c’ from thelibrary. This file contains a version of perror(3) which callscom_err instead of calling write directly. As I do not have access to non-BSD systems, there are probably bugs present that may interfere with building or using this package on other systems. If they are reported to me, they can probably be fixed for the next version. Bug Reports Please send any comments or bug reports to the principal author: Ken Raeburn, Raeburn@Athena.MIT.EDU. Acknowledgements I would like to thank: Bill Sommerfeld, for his help with some of this documentation, and catching some of the bugs the first time around; Honeywell Information Systems, for not killing off the Multics operating system before I had an opportunity to use it; Honeywell's customers, who persuaded them not to do so, for a while; Ted Anderson of CMU, for catching some problems before version 1.2 left the nest; Stan Zanarotti and several others of MIT's Student Information Processing Board, for getting us started with “discuss,” for which this package was originally written; and everyone I've talked into — I mean, asked to read this document and the “man” pages.